Intelligent CO2 compressors and ejectors are emerging as highly promising solutions for industrial refrigeration systems. This publication highlights their expanding capacity and scale, demonstrating their suitability for various applications, including cold storage facilities, distribution cente...
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Decarbonization is a crucial process in the effort to mitigate the effects of climate change. Considering this aim, efficient energy utilization is also imperative for sustainable and cost-effective operations in dairy plants. In general, the refrigeration system rejects heat to the atmosphere on...
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This paper provides an overview on the basics of carbon counting and how they may apply to carbon counting within the cold storage industry. It will also cover opportunities to take advantage of newer technologies available to improve the accuracy of carbon reporting data, and the ability to gene...
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Chidambaram Narayanan, External Consultant Joel-Steven Singh, Senior Engineer AFRY Switzerland AG
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The rise of automation brings new cybersecurity threats to heavy industries. Cybersecurity attacks like ransomware, malware, and phishing are becoming commonplace and more sophisticated as they continuously evolve and change. This paper reviews the risks and tactics of the most common classes of ...
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Transcritical CO2 heat pumps are emerging as a viable alternative to synthetic air- or water-source heat pumps, and they present an opportunity for electrification while eliminating the need for refrigerants with high global warming potential. The purpose of this technical paper is to assess the ...
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This paper presents an objective analysis of the Federal Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) enforcement of ammonia refrigeration facilities across America conducted using hundreds of publicly available independent inspection reports dating from 2006 through 2021...
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Generally, safety standards for refrigeration systems require the placement of at least one overpressureprotection device on all carbon-dioxide (R-744) systems as well as on vessels manufactured in accordance with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Secti...
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The dominant topics for industrial refrigeration facilities have been climate change and rising energy costs in recent years. A new generation of environmental activists worldwide has pushed this agenda forward to the point where politicians have started to alter their countries’ energy policies....
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Incidents of ammonia releases due to hydraulic shock in the refrigeration pipework have been reported in the past and could occur in the future. Such shock events carry significant commercial risks and are a concern for the health and safety of humans. Two locations where hydraulic shock occurs f...
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The use of a variable frequency drive (VFD) to control the speed of an AC induction motor has numerous benefits, including energy savings, improved reliability, reduced equipment wear and tear, and more precise control of motor speed.
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All too often, energy management projects with good potential will fail for any number of reasons. Most of these failures will be a result of the project not addressing key requirements for success, or not meeting the expectations of all users throughout the organization. This report is intended ...
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Over the last 15 years the market for high-temperature ammonia heat pumps has been growing in Europe and now it is also taking off in North America. That period in Europe has yielded many lessons as higher pressure and temperature present new challenges in refrigerant design. This paper explains ...
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Absorption cycles using the ammonia-water refrigerant pair have a long track record of commercial applications ranging from industrial-size cooling using waste heat as the energy source, to gas-fired residential air-conditioners and small refrigerators for recreational vehicles using propane fuel...
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Carbon dioxide (CO2) has today become the standard refrigerant of choice for many applications, often enabling better coefficient of performance (COP) than the previously adopted technologies based on other refrigerants. This trend is progressively leading to both a lower usage of high global war...
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The goal of any industrial refrigeration system is to remove heat. Therefore, the total heat load is the design engineer’s first calculation, which is then used to size and select the evaporators. Unfortunately, this heat load is often also applied to the sizing of other components in the system,...
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The goal of operators, contractors, and design engineers is to operate a closed loop refrigeration system as close to design intent as possible. The owner wants maximum value from the equipment and personnel employed at the facility. The presence of gases that do not liquify within the operating ...
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The global HFC phase-down and the proposed restrictions on PFAS (per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances) have accelerated the transition towards natural refrigerants. The requirements of the Paris Agreement, the European CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism) initiative, and ESG (Environmen...
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The ammonia refrigeration industry has a historically good safety record and hence there have been few instances of ammonia release resulting in ignition events. To continue and improve upon safe practice, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling was undertaken...
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The condensation induced hydraulic shock (CIHS) phenomena is a primary safety concern in low temperature ammonia systems. When transient pressure amplitudes become exceedingly high, pipe rupture can occur. Of particular interest to the ammonia industry is the development of a computational fluid ...
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Recognized and generally accepted good engineering practices (RAGAGEP) are written documents intended for use in the design, installation, operation, and maintenance of process equipment. There has been a movement in the ammonia refrigeration industry towards standardization...
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Industrial ammonia refrigeration systems vary widely in their engineering design, size, scope, and technology features. However, they universally experience some level of refrigerant loss throughout their operational life. Refrigerant losses from industrial ammonia refrigeration systems originate...
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The OSHA Process Safety Management (PSM) program and the EPA Risk Management Plan (RMP) rule rely on mechanical integrity to achieve the desired results. In the case of piping and equipment exposed to anhydrous ammonia, the predominate damage mechanism is external corrosion or corrosion under ins...
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Should the hazard and operability (HAZOP) methodology be considered the industry standard for hazard reviews (HRs) and process hazard analyses (PHAs)? The topic is currently the focus of a vigorous debate in the industrial refrigeration industry. While there are advocates for and against employin...
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Considerations around modes of test and operation that place ammonia refrigeration systems in a vacuum are discussed. A literature review of IIAR publications and general industry recommendations regarding design of pressure vessels and systems for evacuation and operation is presented. Results a...
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A significant amount of research and development has gone into the deployment of ammonia as a refrigerant in air conditioning and heat pump systems, going back to the first half of the twentieth century. This presentation provides an overview of the basic thermodynamic cycles currently in applica...
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Carbon dioxide as a refrigerant is becoming increasingly more popular on a global scale. The industrial refrigeration market is also finding applications for transcritical CO2 systems. Unlike ammonia systems, oil in CO2 systems is typically miscible and can create unique challenges in its managem...
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